Chinese characters are an essential part of the Chinese language. Have you ever wondered what the Mandarin characters are? how many Chinese characters are there? And what is the most common characters in Mandarin Chinese?

This page strives to provide the most complete guide to Chinese character. In this article, we will look at the composition of characters, including their radicals, strokes and Structure and explore the history of them. List the common characters for love, peace, and strength. Explain the differences between simplified characters and traditional characters, as well as share tips and free PDF resources about how to write and learn Chinese characters quickly, what’s more, there will be websites where you may learn them effectively.

This tutorial will help you comprehend Chinese characters and their usage, as well as provide you with a free Chinese character list in PDF format (Download the list of 3500 Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters PDF)

Part 1. Overview of Chinese Mandarin Characters

Chinese characters, known as “Hanzi” (汉字), are the written symbols used in the Chinese language. They are logographic, meaning each character represents a word or a meaningful part of a word rather than a sound. This unique feature sets them apart from alphabetic writing systems used in many other languages.

Chinese characters are over 3,000 years old. The earliest known examples date back to the Shang Dynasty (around 1600–1046 BCE), konwn as 甲骨文 (jiǎgǔwén), or “oracle bone script,” where they appeared on oracle bones used for divination. The script has evolved significantly over the centuries, transitioning through various forms such as bronze inscriptions and seal script, ultimately leading to the modern forms used today. This long history reflects the rich cultural and linguistic heritage of China.

Importance of Chinese characters

Chinese characters are the fundamental building blocks of Chinese words and the Chinese writing system. Each Chinese character is a single written unit that represents a word, concept, or idea in the Chinese language. There are tens of thousands of unique Chinese characters in existence, though only a few thousand are commonly used in modern Chinese writing.

There are thousands of Chinese characters in the Chinese language, each with its own meaning and pronunciation. Understanding Chinese characters requires knowledge of their components, stroke order, and how they relate to each other.

If you want your children to master Chinese characters systematically and firmly, as well as set a solid foundation for future Chinese learning, you can enroll in a free online 1-on-1 Chinese trial class and create a Chinese character study plan for them.

Part 2. How Many Chinese Characters Are There?

How many characters are there in the Chinese language. The total number of existing characters is vast, with estimates ranging from tens of thousands to over 100,000. However, the official list in common usage includes about 3,000 to 5,000 characters, which are sufficient for reading newspapers, literature, and everyday communication. The “汉语大字典” (Chinese dictionary), a comprehensive dictionary, contains over 50,000 characters in Chinese, including many rare and historical ones. In practical terms, knowing around 2,000 to 3,000 characters allows one to understand most written Chinese.

Learn more about: How Many Characters Are in the Chinese Alphabet?

How Many Mandarin Characters Are There in Modern Chinese?

#1. Official Character Counts:

#2. Comprehensive Dictionaries:

#3. Practical Character Knowledge:

#4. Estimates and Variations:

In summary, while the total number of existing modern Chinese characters is very large, the core set of commonly used characters in modern Chinese is generally considered to be in the range of 3,000 to 7,000 characters, with 2,000 to 3,000 characters being sufficient for practical literacy purposes.

Part 3. Composition of the Chinese Mandarin Character

Mandarin characters are intricate and layered, combining radicals, phonetics, and structural forms along with specific strokes to create a rich Chinese writing system.

These components can include radicals, which are recurring character elements that convey semantic meaning, as well as phonetics, which indicate the character’s pronunciation. The overall structural form of the character, including the arrangement and number of strokes, also contributes to its visual identity and memorability.

Here is the basic composition of Chinese characters.

The Chinese language, particularly Mandarin Chinese, is written using these logographic Chinese characters. Understanding the structure and evolution of the Chinese writing system is crucial for effectively learning and using the Chinese language and Chinese words.

Chinese Character Radicals

Radicals are the building blocks of Chinese characters. They can serve as semantic indicators, providing clues about the meaning of the Chinese words they are part of. Radicals help organize characters in dictionaries and provide hints about pronunciation or meaning. They are crucial for understanding character composition, especially for learners of the Chinese language.

Radicals can be categorized based on their meanings. Here are a few common examples. You can also check the “Basic 214 Common Chinese Characters Radicals List” to learn more about Chinese Character Radicals.

Basic Chinese Strokes and Strokes Orders

In the context of Chinese characters, strokes refer to the individual marks or lines that are combined to form a character. Every Chinese character is formed from six basic, four combining, and 29 compound strokes. The six basic strokes include vertical and horizontal strokes, left and right sloping strokes, a single dot, and a diagonal tick. Understanding these strokes and their correct order is essential for writing characters accurately.

#1. Basic Chinese Strokes

#2. Chinese Stroke Order Basics

Stroke order refers to the sequence in which the individual strokes of a Chinese character are written. We also provide you with a printable PDF to help you practice stroke orders.Here are the basic rules of stroke order:.

Structure of Chinese Character

Mandarin characters are composed of different elements that work together to convey meaning and pronunciation. Most of the characters consist of two components: phonetic component and a symbolic component. At the core of many characters are radicals, which often indicate the general category of meaning. For instance, the radical 水 (shuǐ), meaning “water,” appears in characters like 河 (hé), which means “river,” and 海 (hǎi), meaning “sea.”

In addition to radicals, many characters include phonetic components that suggest how the character is pronounced. A clear example is the character 妈 (mā), where the phonetic component 马 (mǎ) gives a hint about its pronunciation, while the symbolic component 女 (nǚ) indicates that it relates to “woman,” thus meaning “mother.”

A large number of characters feature a blend of both symbolic and phonetic components. For example, the character 姐 (jiě) consists of the symbolic component 女 (meaning “female”) and the phonetic component 且 (qiě), which together convey the meaning of “big sister.” Some characters can be more complex, incorporating three components. An example is 聪 (cōng), where the symbolic component 耳 (ěr) relates to “ear,” while 宋 (sòng) serves as the phonetic element, portraying the meaning of “intelligent.”

Lastly, there are single-component characters that are simpler, made up of only one radical. Such characters include 口 (kǒu), meaning “mouth,” 大 (dà), meaning “big,” and 日 (rì), meaning “sun” or “day.” Together, these elements illustrate the intricate system behind the composition of Chinese characters, integrating visual symbols with phonetic cues.

Chinese Character Structure List PDF – Download for free

Part 4. Common Chinese Characters (With Free PDF)

Common Chinese characters are the building blocks of the Chinese language, each carrying its own meaning. Understanding these characters allows learners to form basic vocabulary, read simple sentences, and communicate effectively. These characters often represent fundamental concepts or emotions, making them essential for both language acquisition and cultural appreciation.

Most Common Chinese Characters

Chinese Character for Love

Chinese Character for Peace

Chinese Character for Strength

Four Character Idioms about Dragon

Part 5. Simplified vs Traditional Chinese Characters

Chinese writing has a rich history, and its characters have evolved over millennia. To enhance literacy and modernize the language, two distinct forms of characters emerged: Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese. Understanding these forms is crucial for learners of the language, as they reflect different cultural and historical contexts.

Simplified Chinese Characters

Simplified characters are a modernized version of Chinese writing, developed to reduce the complexity of traditional characters by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying their forms.

Traditional Chinese Characters

Traditional characters retain the original complexity and strokes of the characters used before the simplification of modern Chinese characters.

Both simplified Chinese characters and traditional ones play important roles in the modern Chinese language. Their differences reflect not only linguistic choices but also cultural identities. Understanding these forms helps learners navigate the diverse landscape of Chinese writing.

Part 6. Website to Learn Chinese Mandarin Characters

For Chinese language students, learning Chinese characters is an essential part of mastering the language, as they convey not only meaning but also the nuances of Chinese culture and history. With the right resources, this complex task can become much easier and more enjoyable. Below is a detailed overview of several websites, focusing on their unique learning content, skills enhancement, and standout features.

WuKong Chinese

WuKong Chinese offers a dynamic and interactive platform specifically designed to support learners in mastering the Mandarin Chinese language, with experienced Chinese teachers. The platform includes lessons on character recognition, writing practice, and vocabulary building. Chinese learners can engage with multimedia resources, such as videos and interactive exercises, that explain the structure and meaning of characters.

Skills Enhancement: WuKong helps improve reading, writing, and spoken language skills through practical exercises that simulate real-life situations. The character learning section is particularly effective, using stroke order animations to guide users in correct writing techniques, which can help users aged 3–18 learn Chinese characters and improve Chinese vocabulary effectively.

Standout Features: The platform emphasizes cultural insights alongside Mandarin Chinese language learning, allowing students to understand the context in which characters are used and tell the difference between the same character. Additionally, community support through forums and groups fosters collaboration and motivation among learners.

Skritter

Skritter focuses on helping users learn how to write Chinese characters through a unique, interactive writing interface. By emphasizing writing practice, it integrates spaced repetition to enhance recall.

Skritter offers character writing practice with stroke-order animations and a vast library of Chinese vocabulary. Users can learn through engaging exercises that require them to write characters on a touchscreen or mouse.

HanziCraft

HanziCraft is an interactive tool aimed at breaking down Chinese characters into simpler components and radicals. This approach demystifies characters and helps learners understand their structure and meanings.

Chinese learner can search for characters and see their breakdown into radicals and components, which aids in memorization. The site also provides example sentences to illustrate how each character is used in context.

Arch Chinese

Arch Chinese offers a comprehensive suite of resources for learning to write and understand Chinese characters. It is designed to support both students and teachers with its structured lessons and practice materials.

The website features detailed stroke order diagrams, worksheets for practice, and online quizzes to test knowledge. Each character includes explanations of its meaning and usage.

Pleco

Pleco is primarily known as a Chinese dictionary app, but it also offers comprehensive features for character learning that make it an invaluable resource for language students.

Pleco includes a vast database of characters, along with definitions, pronunciations, and example sentences. It also offers flashcard functionality for studying vocabulary.

Part 7. How Do I Read and Write Chinese Mandarin Characters?

How to read Chinese characters:

The spoken language and the written Chinese language are interconnected, but have distinct systems and rules. While the Chinese characters represent the written form, mastering the Chinese spoken language is also crucial for full fluency and communication.

1. Familiarize yourself with stroke order: Each character has a specific stroke order, which is important for proper pronunciation and writing.
2. Learn Basic Radicals: Radicals are the building blocks of characters. Understanding common radicals can help you guess meanings and sounds.
3. Use Context Clues: Many characters can change meaning depending on context. Pay attention to the surrounding Chinese words.

How do I write Chinese characters?

When practicing writing Chinese characters, it is important to pay close attention to the standard stroke order and sequences. This not only ensures the characters are formed correctly, but also facilitates faster and more legible Chinese text production.

In addition to practicing the physical act of writing, the use of flashcards and repetition can greatly aid in the memorization of Chinese characters and their associated meanings and pronunciations. This holistic approach to learning helps learners build a strong foundation in the Chinese writing system.

1. Practice Drawing Characters: Start by practicing the stroke order on paper or using digital tools. Many apps offer stroke-order animations.
2. Repetition: Writing each character multiple times helps reinforce memorization.
3. Utilize Flashcards: Create flashcards with the character on one side and its meaning and pronunciation on the other.

FAQ about Chinese Characters

Q 1. How do you translate English to Chinese characters?

#1. Translating English to Traditional Chinese

a. Use Online Translation Tools: When converting English text into Chinese text, online translation tools can be a helpful resource. Websites like Google Translate or specific Chinese translation services can convert English text into traditional characters.

b. Check context: Some Chinese words may have multiple translations. Ensure you choose the correct one based on context.

#2. Translating Chinese Mandarin Characters to English:

a. Dictionary Resources: Use online dictionaries or apps (like Dictionary Written Chinese) that allow you to input Mandarin characters and receive the English translation.

b. Apps with OCR: Some apps can scan Chinese text and translate it into English instantly.

Q 2. What’s the connection between the Chinese alphabet and characters?

• Radicals and Phonetics: Unlike alphabets, Chinese characters are logographic, meaning each character represents a word or a meaningful part of a word rather than a sound. There is no “Chinese alphabet” like there is in languages such as English.
• Number of Characters: The Chinese writing system consists of thousands of unique characters, while most alphabets have a limited number of letters (e.g., the English alphabet has 26 letters).
• Pronunciation: Characters can have multiple pronunciations depending on context, whereas letters in an alphabet generally have a consistent sound.

Summary

Chinese characters are not just symbols; they embody the rich history and culture of the Chinese language. With estimates of over 50,000 characters, understanding their composition, common uses, and the difference between simplified and traditional characters is crucial for anyone interested in learning Chinese. By focusing on the basics, practicing writing, and utilizing available resources, you can embark on a rewarding journey into the world of Mandarin characters.

In addition, Wukong Chinese offers a variety of free and engaging Chinese character practice worksheets. Parents who are interested can download and print them online for their children’s practice.

Mao Ying

Master’s degree in International Chinese Education from Peking University. Dedicated to the field of Chinese language education, with 7 years of experience as an international Chinese language teacher.

Ever wondered how to crack the code of Chinese characters? Imagine strolling through bustling streets in China, intrigued by the mesmerizing symbols adorning every sign. Yet, without understanding these characters, it feels like navigating a maze blindfolded. Fear not, as we embark on a journey to demystify the intricate world of Chinese characters. From deciphering signs to mastering menus, we’ll guide you through the basics, making reading and writing a piece of cake. So, are you ready to unravel the enigma of Chinese characters and unlock a whole new dimension of language?

Exploring Chinese Characters: An In-Depth Look

Chinese mandarin characters, the cornerstone of written communication in the Chinese language, hold a profound significance that spans thousands of years of history and culture. With over 50,000 characters in existence, each imbued with its own unique meaning and pronunciation, grasping the fundamentals of Chinese characters is essential for unlocking the door to linguistic fluency.

Understanding the Landscape of Chinese Characters

Navigating the vast landscape of Chinese characters can be likened to embarking on an expedition through an ancient civilization, each character representing a piece of cultural heritage and linguistic tradition. While the exact number of Chinese characters is subject to debate, estimates range from tens of thousands to over 100,000, encompassing both simplified and traditional variants.

Components of Chinese Characters

Chinese characters are intricate symbols of various components, each contributing to their structure and meaning. Understanding these components is essential for deciphering characters and grasping their significance in Chinese.

1. Radicals: The Building Blocks

Radicals are fundamental components of Chinese characters that often convey semantic meaning or thematic elements. With over 200 radicals in existence, ranging from simple symbols to more complex designs, radicals serve as the foundation upon which characters are built. Some common radicals include:

• 人 (rén): Meaning “person” or “human,” this radical is found in characters related to people or society.
• 心 (xīn): Representing “heart” or “mind,” this radical is often associated with emotions or mental states.
• 水 (shuǐ): Signifying “water,” this radical is prevalent in characters related to water, liquids, or fluidity.

By recognizing radicals and their associated meanings, learners can discern the thematic context of characters and enhance their comprehension.

2. Strokes: Precision in Writing

Strokes are the individual brush or pen movements used to write Chinese characters, shaping their visual appearance and structure. With over 30 basic strokes in existence, strokes dictate the form and function of characters, influencing their overall composition. Some common strokes include:

• Horizontal Stroke (一): A straight line drawn from left to right.
• Vertical Stroke (丨): A straight line drawn from top to bottom.
• Dot (丶): A small dot used to denote specific elements within characters.

Mastering stroke order and stroke techniques is essential for writing Chinese characters with precision and elegance, ensuring clarity and readability in written communication.

Pinyin: The Key to Pronunciation

Pinyin serves as a vital tool for learners of Chinese, providing a phonetic guide to pronouncing Chinese characters using the Roman alphabet. By mastering Pinyin, learners can bridge the gap between written symbols and spoken words, enhancing their overall proficiency in pronunciation and communication.

Understanding Pinyin:

• Phonetic Representation: Pinyin assigns distinct sounds to each Chinese character, allowing learners to pronounce words accurately.
• Romanization System: Developed in the 1950s, Pinyin utilizes the Roman alphabet to represent the sounds of Mandarin Chinese.
• Syllable Structure: Pinyin breaks down Chinese characters into syllables, each with its own pronunciation and tone.

Examples of Pinyin:

1. Character: 中国

Pinyin: Zhōngguó

Meaning: “China”

Pronunciation: “zhōng” (with a rising tone) and “guó” (with a flat tone)

2. Character: 汉字

Pinyin: Hànzì

Meaning: “Chinese characters”

Pronunciation: “hàn” (with a falling-rising tone) and “zì” (with a falling tone)

Four Tones of Mandarin Chinese

Central to the melodic cadence of Mandarin Chinese are its four tones, each imparting a unique pitch contour to syllables and altering their meaning accordingly. Mastering tones is essential for accurate pronunciation and comprehension in spoken Chinese, as subtle variations in tone can distinguish between words with distinct meanings.

The four tones in Mandarin Chinese are as follows:

• First Tone (Flat): Pronounced with a high and level pitch, the first tone remains constant throughout the duration of the syllable. For example, the word “mā” (妈) means “mother” and is pronounced with a sustained high pitch.
• Second Tone (Rising): Characterized by a rising pitch contour, the second tone ascends from a mid-level to a high pitch within the syllable. For instance, the word “má” (麻) means “hemp” and is pronounced with a rising pitch.
• Third Tone (Falling-Rising): Beginning with a mid-level pitch and falling before rising again, the third tone exhibits a distinctive contour that requires nuanced pronunciation. For example, the word “mǎ” (马) means “horse” and is pronounced with a falling-rising pitch.
• Fourth Tone (Falling): Marked by a sharp descent in pitch, the fourth tone starts at a high level and rapidly falls to a low pitch within the syllable. For instance, the word “mà” (骂) means “scold” and is pronounced with a sharp falling pitch.

Learning Strategies for Reading Chinese Characters

Mastering the art of reading Chinese characters requires a combination of dedication, practice, and effective learning strategies. By adopting proven techniques and approaches, learners can enhance their proficiency in recognizing and understanding Chinese characters with confidence and ease.

1. Start with Basic Characters:

Begin your journey by focusing on commonly used Chinese characters that form the foundation of written communication. Start with simple characters that are frequently encountered in everyday language, such as numbers, colors, and common nouns. Building a strong base of basic characters provides a solid framework for expanding your vocabulary and comprehension.

2. Utilize Flashcards:

Create flashcards with Chinese characters on one side and their meanings, pronunciations, and Pinyin on the other. Incorporate visual aids, mnemonics, or example sentences to reinforce associations between characters and their meanings. Regularly review flashcards to strengthen memory retention and improve recognition skills.

3. Contextual Learning:

Immerse yourself in Chinese texts, materials, and media that provide contextual clues and real-world applications of Chinese characters. Read books, articles, or online content with Pinyin and English translations to enhance comprehension and reinforce vocabulary acquisition. Pay attention to how characters are used in different contexts to grasp their nuances and meanings.

4. Break Down Characters:

Analyze the components of each Chinese character, including radicals, strokes, and semantic elements. Break down complex characters into their constituent parts to understand their structure and meaning. By deconstructing characters into smaller components, learners can decipher unfamiliar characters more effectively and recognize recurring patterns.

5. Practice Writing:

Engage in regular writing practice to reinforce character recognition and stroke order. Use grid paper or writing apps with guidelines for stroke order and character proportions to practice writing Chinese characters. Start with simpler characters and gradually progress to more complex ones as your proficiency improves. Writing characters by hand enhances muscle memory and promotes deeper understanding of their visual forms.

Writing Chinese Characters: A Hands-On Approach

Mastering the art of writing Chinese characters is a dynamic and immersive process that involves hands-on practice, precision, and dedication. By embracing a hands-on approach to writing, learners can develop essential skills in stroke order, character formation, and visual expression, ultimately enhancing their proficiency in Chinese characters.

1. Start with Stroke Order:

Understanding the correct stroke order is paramount to writing Chinese characters with clarity and fluency. Each character is composed of a specific sequence of strokes, which follow established rules and guidelines. Begin by learning the basic stroke order for common radicals and characters, focusing on proper technique and directionality. Practicing stroke order ensures consistency and readability in written communication.

2. Practice Regularly:

Dedicate time each day to practicing writing Chinese characters, incorporating structured exercises and drills into your study routine. Use grid paper or writing apps that provide guidelines for stroke order and character proportions to refine your writing skills. Start with simpler characters and gradually progress to more complex ones as you gain confidence and proficiency.

3. Repetition is Key:

Repetition is essential for mastering the art of writing Chinese characters. Write each character repeatedly to reinforce muscle memory and develop fluidity in your strokes. Focus on achieving consistency in stroke thickness, length, and angle to enhance the visual appeal of your writing. Regular practice cultivates precision and accuracy in character formation, enabling you to write with confidence and ease.

4. Seek Feedback:

Share your writing with native Chinese speakers or experienced learners for feedback and guidance. Constructive criticism helps identify areas for improvement and provides valuable insights into stroke order, character structure, and visual aesthetics. Incorporate feedback into your practice sessions to refine your writing skills and address any areas of weakness.

Introducing WuKong Chinese Course

Discover WuKong Chinese Course, an immersive program for kids aged 3-18. Dive deep into Chinese language and culture, guided by experts. Tailor-made experiences enhance learning strategies for reading, writing, and recognizing Chinese characters, mastering Pinyin and stroke order. This isn’t just a course—it’s a transformative Chinese character learning journey.

Course Highlights:

• Tailored Learning Paths: WuKong offers a comprehensive curriculum spanning 32 levels across four core Chinese courses. Each course is meticulously designed to cater to children of various ages, language backgrounds, and learning interests, ensuring a personalized learning journey for every student.
• 24/7 Exclusive Tutoring: With access available in over 2000 cities globally, WuKong provides on-demand tutoring, anytime, anywhere. Their dedicated teachers offer private tutoring sessions at fixed intervals, delivering a personalized learning experience for maximum effectiveness.
• Interdisciplinary Learning: WuKong integrates IB-PYP interdisciplinary theme-based learning into its Chinese curriculum. Through engaging characters and captivating stories, students explore real-life scenarios that foster a passion for learning while building essential Chinese language skills.

Course Benefits:

• International Chinese: Tailored for ages 5-18, this course aligns with International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum standards, preparing students for international language exams and serving as an essential pathway to Chinese language fluency.
• Advanced Chinese: Designed for students with a strong foundation in Chinese, this course offers a pathway to higher-level proficiency, ideal for those seeking deeper understanding and mastery of the language.
• Pre-K Chinese: Sparking interest in Chinese language learning from ages 3-6, this course features interactive and fun learning experiences, laying the groundwork for future language studies.
• Basic Chinese: Catering to ages 5-18, this course is designed for students lacking a Chinese language environment, providing a solid foundation in language skills aligned with the Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK).

FAQs about Chinese Characters

Q1. Are Chinese characters difficult to learn?

Learning Chinese characters can be challenging due to their complexity and the large number of characters. However, with consistent practice and the use of effective learning strategies, such as spaced repetition and mnemonics, mastering Chinese characters is achievable for learners of all levels.

Q2. Can Chinese characters be typed on computers or smartphones?

Yes, Chinese characters can be typed using various input methods on computers and smartphones. Pinyin input, handwriting recognition, and stroke-based input are some common methods used to input Chinese characters digitally. Additionally, there are numerous software and applications available to facilitate typing Chinese characters on different devices.

Q3. What is the history of Chinese characters?

Chinese characters have a rich history dating back thousands of years. They evolved from ancient pictographs and ideographs, gradually developing into the complex characters used today. Throughout history, Chinese characters have undergone various reforms and standardizations, reflecting changes in language, culture, and technology.

Conclusion:

In this article, we’ve explored the fascinating world of Chinese characters, learning how to read, write, and understand them. From breaking down their components to mastering pronunciation and writing techniques, we’ve covered it all. For those seeking structured learning, we recommend WuKong Chinese Course, offering tailored programs for kids of all ages. With expert guidance and personalized support, WuKong makes learning Chinese characters fun and accessible. So, whether you’re just starting out or looking to enhance your skills, WuKong has you covered. Embark on your Chinese learning journey today and unlock a world of opportunities! You can explore best website to learn Chinese characters here.

In addition, Wukong Chinese offers a variety of free and engaging Chinese character practice worksheets. Parents who are interested can download and print them online for their children’s practice.

Bella

Master’s degree from Yangzhou University. Possessing 10 years of experience in K-12 Chinese language teaching and research, with over 10 published papers in teh field of language and literature. Currently responsible for teh research and production of “WuKong Chinese” major courses, particularly focusing on teh course’s interest, expansiveness, and its impact on students’ thinking development. She also dedicated to helping children acquire a stronger foundation in Chinese language learning, including Chinese characters, phonetics (pinyin), vocabulary, idioms, classic stories, and Chinese culture. Our Chinese language courses for academic advancement aim to provide children with a wealth of noledge and a deeper understanding of Chinese language skills.

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